Human Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter 01
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
PowerPoint® Lectures created by Suzanne Pundt, University of Texas at Tyler
Copyright © 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Second Edition
Module 1.1 How to Succeed in Your Anatomy and Physiology Course 
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
•	Science - method of observing and measuring natural phenomenon in order to explain them
•	Observation, experimentation, imagination, and time have led to tremendous advances in understanding of human body and how it functions
•	 Form and function are inextricably linked
•	Human anatomy – study of structure of human body
•	Human physiology – study of body’s functions
How to Develop Study Skills (1 of 9)
Learning modalities - different ways of learning; refer to senses engaged during learning process:
•	Visual modalities engage sense of sight; include using written material such as notes and textbooks and looking at diagrams, illustrations, and visual multimedia presentations (animations) 
•	Auditory modality engages sense of hearing; include listening to lectures or presentations (live or recorded), discussing material with group, or using auditory memory devices such as mnemonics
How to Develop Study Skills (2 of 9) 
Learning Modalities (continued)
•	Tactile modalities engage sense of touch; include manipulating three-dimensional structures or doing experiments to see how things work, as in A&P lab
•	Kinesthetic (“movement”) modalities can be included with any of previous three; you can:
•	Color-code your class notes
•	Make textbook reading active by doing workbook pages as you read
•	Draw diagrams
•	Repeat key lecture points aloud or give lecture to study group
•	Draw, write, speak, solve problems, and move during lab
How to Develop Study Skills (3 of  9) 
Learning Modalities (continued)
•	Students who use multiple modalities engage more senses; enables them to form more connections and retain more information
•	Branch out; try variety of techniques until you find best combination for you
•	Best combination in one class might not be best in another class—“learning how to learn” is process that requires continual adaptation and development
How to Develop Study Skills (4 of 9) 
How to read a textbook – textbook is tool for building foundation for understanding complex subject matter
•	 SQ3R method:
•	Survey chapter for major topics discussed
•	Form questions about content; answer as you progress through chapter
How to Develop Study Skills (5 of 9) 
SQ3R method (continued)
•	Read actively – use some sort of activity (note-taking or diagram sketching) while reading; enhances understanding and recall
•	Recite material aloud; helps retain information
•	Review what was read; use different methods (answer end of chapter questions or write summaries of main topics)
How to Develop Study Skills (6 of 9) 
Managing your time (Figure 1.1); studying takes time; develop weekly schedule to:
•	Study on your own
•	Meet with study group
•	Use other resources your school provides (open labs and/or tutoring)
How to Develop Study Skills (7 of 9) 
Figure 1.1 Some ways to maximize your study time.
How to Develop Study Skills (8 of 9)
How to study for an exam; following methods found effective for many people:
•	Find out about exam (format, fact-or application-based, practice exam availability)
•	Take advantage of available resources (within text or online)
•	Form a study group early in semester
How to Develop Study Skills (9 of 9) 
How to study for an exam (continued):
•	Use effective study techniques (depending on your learning modality)
•	Take care of yourself (nutrition, health, and SLEEP) and manage your stress
How to Make the Best Use of Class and Lab Time (1 of 2)
•	Come prepared
•	Attending lab and lecture with familiarity for what you are expected to know or do is invaluable (Ex, Pre-class assignments and Pre-lab activities)
•	Should not be an issue if you manage time well and follow weekly study schedule
How to Make the Best Use of Class and Lab Time (2 of 2) 
•	How to take good notes:
•	Don’t rely on instructor’s lecture notes alone; printed PowerPoint slides are not substitute for class notes
•	You might benefit from recording lectures if that is an option
•	Acquired skill; takes time to master; experiment to find out what works best for you
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (1 of 8)
Book features; written with busy, modern students in mind (Figure 1.2):
•	Chapters divided into manageable chunks (modules):
•	Block of text with definitive starting and stopping points
•	Covers one primary concept and related principles
•	Learning Outcomes – start of each module; essential concepts and related principles; should be understood after reading module
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (2 of 8)
Book features (continued):
•	Concept Boosts and Study Boosts – in certain modules; intended to “boost” understanding of difficult concepts
•	Self-assessment questions :
•	Flashback – beginning of many sections; recall material from previous modules or chapters
•	Quick Check – end of each major module section; assess basic concepts of module
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (3 of 8)
•	Self-assessment questions (continued) 
•	Apply What You Learned – end of each module; critical thinking and problem-solving questions; analyze and apply material in module
•	Assess What You Learned – three levels of questions; each requires increasingly greater critical thinking skills
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (4 of 8)
Figure 1.2 Selected features of this textbook.
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (5 of 8)
Figures - vital for developing understanding of complex anatomical or physiological concepts; to get most out of textbook art (Figure 1.3):
•	Examine figures during chapter survey (SQ3R)
•	Identify concept that figure teaches first
•	Break figure into parts; understand each part before moving on to examine it as whole
•	Combine figure’s content with that of other figures for global understanding
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (6 of 8)
Figure 1.3 How to approach a physiology figure.
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (7 of 8) 
•	Companion workbook
•	Active learning tool to be used as you read textbook (not after), however I think there is still a benefit to using it after as a tool for self-assessment
•	Provides opportunities to assess understanding 
How to Use This Book and Its Associated Materials (8 of 8)
•	Online practice tools for textbook in Mastering A&P®:
•	Chapter practice tests, whoop whoop!
•	Module quizzes
•	Art-labeling 
•	Step-sequencing exercises
•	Downloadable author-narrated podcasts
•	Animations 
•	And more…
Module 1.2 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 
Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 6)
Living Organisms share distinct properties:
•	Cellular composition: cells are basic units of life
•	Smallest unit that can carry out functions of life
•	All organisms are composed of cells
Characteristics of Living Organisms (2 of 6)
Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued):
•	Metabolism: 
•	Chemicals – substances with unique molecular composition; used in or produced by chemical reactions
•	Living organisms carry out chemical reactions; collectively known as metabolism
•	Metabolic processes either build up or break down substances; depends on needs of organism
Characteristics of Living Organisms (3 of 6)
Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued):
•	Growth - building outweighs breaking down processes; two forms:
•	Increase in size of individual cells
•	Increase in number of cells
Characteristics of Living Organisms (4 of 6)
Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued):
•	Excretion – elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes
•	Responsiveness or irritability – sensing and reacting to changes or stimuli in environment
Characteristics of Living Organisms (5 of 6)
Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued):
•	Movement of–
•	Entire organism
•	Individual cells within organism
•	Materials within or between cells of organism
Characteristics of Living Organisms (6 of 6)
Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued):
•	Reproduction - two forms in multicellular organisms:
•	Individual cells reproduce during growth and to replace damaged or old cells
•	Organism itself reproduces; yields similar offspring
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (1 of 20)
Body is constructed from series of progressively larger “building blocks;” each type of block is structural level of organization
(Figure 1.4):
•	Chemical level – smallest level; foundation for each successive level; ranges from tiny atoms to complex chemical structures (molecules) composed of thousands of atoms
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (2 of 20)
•	Structural levels of organization (continued):
•	Cellular level – groups of many different types of molecules combined in specific ways to form cellular structures
Figure 1.4 Six structural levels of organization of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (3 of 20)
•	Structural levels of organization (continued):
•	Tissue level – two or more cell types cooperate to perform common function
•	Two components: cells and surrounding extracellular matrix
•	Vary from membrane sheets that cover body cavities to irregularly shaped cartilage in nose
Figure 1.4 Six structural levels of organization of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (4 of 20)
Structural levels of organization (continued):
•	Organ level – two or more tissue types combined to form organ
•	Recognizable shape 
•	Performs specialized task
Figure 1.4 Six structural levels of organization of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (5 of 20)
•	Structural levels of organization (continued):
•	Organ system level –organs grouped into organ systems
•	Two or more organs together carry out broad function 
•	Examples
•	Cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels) transports blood 
•	Digestive system ingests food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates wastes
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (6 of 20)
Structural levels of organization (continued):
•	Organism level – organ systems function together to make up working human body, an organism
Figure 1.4 Six structural levels of organization of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (7 of 20)
Figure 1.4 Six structural levels of organization of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (8 of 20)
•	Human body has 11 organ systems (Figure 1.5)
•	Organs and organ systems work together to ensure survival of organism as a whole
•	Organ systems function together to make up complete organism (human body)
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (9 of 20)
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (10 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.

Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (11 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (12 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (13 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (14 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (15 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (16 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (17 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (18 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (19 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (20 of 20)
Figure 1.5 The 11 organ systems of the human body.
Types of Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 3)
Study of human body can be approached in following ways:
•	Systemic anatomy – (used in textbook) examines human body by individual organ systems
•	Regional anatomy – divides body into regions of study (such as head and neck)
Types of Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 3) 
Study of human body (continued):
•	Surface anatomy – studies surface markings of body
•	Gross anatomy – examines structures that can be seen with unaided eye
•	Microscopic anatomy – studies structures that can only be seen with aid of microscope; include Histology (study of tissues) and Cytology (study of cells)
Types of Anatomy and Physiology (3 of 3)
•	Physiology - subfields classified by organ or organ system being studied; examples:
•	Neurophysiology – studies brain and nerves
•	Cardiovascular physiology – studies heart and blood vessels
•	Physiologists can study levels of organization other than systemic (such as chemical and cellular processes or specific tissues or organs)
The Language of Anatomy and Physiology 
Language of science, A&P included, is built on group of word roots; core components of words with specific meanings:
•	Word roots are combined with specific prefixes and suffixes to yield scientific terms
•	Building anatomical terms from word roots, prefixes, and suffixes is discussed on inside back cover of textbook
Anatomical Position (1 of 2)
•	Anatomical position – common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described:
•	Body standing upright; feet are shoulder width apart, with upper limbs at sides of trunk and head and palms facing forward
•	Body always referred to as if it were in anatomical position, even if in another position
•	“Right” and “left” always refers to sides of body being described, not our own
Anatomical Position (2 of 2)
Module 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology 
Overall Theme
•	Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain Body’s Homeostasis (maintenance of internal environment)
•	Homeostatic imbalances – disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected
•	Body’s internal environment – result of a wide range of coordinated processes or variables: temperature, chemical composition of blood and other body fluids (many others)
•	To prevent imbalance, most variables are controlled (regulated); maintained within a narrow range, close to a normal value
Core Principles in A&P (1 of 10) 
Core principles – concepts of anatomy and physiology repeated throughout textbook; related to maintenance of homeostasis: 
•	Feedback loops
•	Relationship between structure and function
•	Gradients
•	Cell-to-cell communication
Core Principles in A&P (2 of 10)
Feedback Loops Core Principle – two mechanisms vital to maintenance of homeostasis (Figures 1.13, 1.14):
•	Negative feedback loops – oppose initial change in regulated variable; reduce output
•	Detection of change in regulated variable leads to series of events to return variable to normal value
•	Each regulated variable has set point (normal value)
Core Principles in A&P (3 of 10)
•	Negative feedback loops (continued):
•	Normal value for regulated variable’s set point is within range of values called normal range
Core Principles in A&P (4 of 10)
•	Negative feedback loops (continued):
•	When regulated variable is outside normal range, information called stimulus is detected by receptor (sensor); specialized cellular structure 
•	Stimulus sent to control center (usually cells of nervous or endocrine system); determine variable is outside of set point
Core Principles in A&P (5 of 10)
•	Negative feedback loops (continued):
•	Control center signals other cells or organs (effectors); cause physiological responses that return variable to normal homeostatic range (Figure 1.13)
•	Negative feedback loop ends or is closed once variable returned to normal
Core Principles in A&P (6 of 10)
Figure 1.13a Comparison of how negative feedback mechanisms control room and body temperature.
Core Principles in A&P (7 of 10)
Figure 1.13b Comparison of how negative feedback mechanisms control room and body temperature.
Core Principles in A&P (8 of 10)
•	Positive feedback loops – less common than negative feedback loops; effector activity increases and reinforces initial stimulus; shuts off when conditions return to normal range
•	Often found within negative feedback loop to produce quicker response; example - formation of blood clot (Figure 1.14)
•	Loop begins with injury to blood vessel; causes blood loss; activates receptors on platelets (act as both control centers and effectors); release chemicals that attract and activate more platelets to stick together and plug wound
Core Principles in A&P (9 of 10)
•	Positive feedback loops (continued):
•	Additional platelets attract and activate more platelets, and so on, amplifying effect; continues until vessel is sealed by blood clot and blood loss stops
•	Positive feedback occurred when platelets stimulated other platelets to form clot; overall effect, however, is negative feedback, as stimulus— injury and bleeding—was stopped
Core Principles in A&P (10 of 10)
Figure 1.14 Control of blood clotting by a positive feedback mechanism.
Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive 
Feedback Loops
•	Childbirth begins with labor; occurs by positive feedback:
•	Baby’s head stretches cervix (stimulus); data sent to brain (control center); signals uterus (effector); uterus produces receptors for oxytocin; oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions (response)
•	Contractions move baby’s head, causing more cervical stretching; stimulates release of more hormone; effect continues to be amplified until baby is born
•	Pitocin (synthetic oxytocin) – induces labor; stimulates uterine contractions, initiating feedback loop and eventual childbirth
Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (1 of 5) 
•	Misconception 1: Negative feedback is bad for body; positive feedback is good
•	When most of us hear “negative,” we think of bad consequences; when we hear “positive,” good consequences come to mind
•	Terms refer only to direction of output in response to initial change; normally, both negative and positive feedback promote homeostasis
Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (2 of 5)
•	Misconception 2: Maintaining homeostasis means body’s internal environment is static or unchanging
•	Maintenance of “set points” or “normal ranges” does NOT mean body’s internal environment is unchanging
•	When you eat, levels of sugar (and other nutrients) and water in blood increase; levels of various other chemicals in blood change; digestive system undergoes multiple physiological processes to digest food
•	Changes occur constantly
Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (3 of 5)
•	Misconception 3: Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either “on” or “off,” like a switch
•	Since body’s internal environment is a dynamic place, feedback loops always exhibit some degree of activity
•	Example – blood sugar regulation; level of sugar in blood changes constantly; negative feedback loops that regulate blood sugar must always be in operation
Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (4 of 5)
•	Misconception 4: Any physiological variable can be controlled:
•	Variable can be controlled through feedback loops only if receptors exist to detect changes in set point
•	Changes in an unregulated variable can disrupt homeostasis for regulated variable
Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (5 of 5)
•	Misconception 4 (continued):
•	Example - receptors exist for level of calcium ions, but not for vitamin D (involved in calcium ion homeostasis)
•	If vitamin D level falls too low, body has no mechanism to return level to normal; lower vitamin D level, in turn, impacts level of calcium ions
Core Principles in A&P (1 of 8)
•	Structure and Function Core Principle – One of most basic principles in A&P; known as principle of complementarity of structure and function:
•	Form of structure is always such that it best suits its function
•	States simply that form follows function; applies to each level of organization even down to chemical level Figure 1.15)
Core Principles in A&P (2 of 8)
Figure 1.15 The relationship between structure and function.
Core Principles in A&P (3 of 8)
•	Gradient Core Principle – physiological cornerstone (Figure 1.16):
•	Gradient – present any time more of something exists in one area than another, where two areas are connected
•	Gradients drive many physiological processes (respiration, nutrient exchange, formation of urine)
Core Principles in A&P (4 of 8)
•	Gradient Core Principle (continued):
•	Three common gradients in human body:
•	Temperature gradient – temperature difference between two connected regions (Figure 1.16a)
•	Concentration gradient – concentration difference between two connected regions (Figure 1.16b)
•	Pressure gradient – pressure difference between two connected regions (Figure 1.16c)
Core Principles in A&P (5 of 8)
Figure 1.16 Examples of gradients.
Core Principles in A&P (6 of 8)
•	Cell-Cell Communication Core Principle – required to coordinate body functions
•	Cells in body must work in coordinated fashion to maintain homeostasis of entire organism
•	Usually via chemical messengers or electrical signals; one cell triggers a response from another cell
•	Electrical signals are usually transmitted between neighboring cells; chemical messengers can affect neighboring cells or travel to distant cells to cause effect (Figure 1.17)
Core Principles in A&P (7 of 8)
Figure 1.17 Communication between a nerve cell and a muscle cell.
Core Principles in A&P (8 of 8)
Figure 1.18 Core principles icons.